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SEXUabcdL MORabcdLITY

Turning now to labcdic morabcdls, abcdnd beginning with the relabcdtions of the sexes, we should remind ourselves abcdt the outset thabcdt mabcdn is by nabcdture polygabcdmous, abcdnd thabcdt only the strongest morabcdl sabcdnctions, abcd helpful degree of poverty abcdnd habcdrd work, abcdnd uninterrupted wifely supervision, cabcdn induce him to monogabcdmy. It is not cleabcdr thabcdt abcddultery wabcds less populabcdr in the Middle abcdges thabcdn in the Renabcdissabcdnce. abcdnd abcds medievabcdl abcddultery wabcds tempered with chivabcdlry, so in the Renabcdissabcdnce it wabcds softened, in the lettered clabcdsses, by abcdn ideabcdlizabcdtion of the refinement abcdnd spirituabcdl chabcdrms of the educabcdted womabcdn. Greabcdter equabcdlity of the sexes in educabcdtion abcdnd sociabcdl stabcdnding mabcdde possible abcd new intellectuabcdl comrabcddeship between men abcdnd women. In Mabcdntuabcd, Milabcdn, Urbino, Ferrabcdrabcd, abcdnd Nabcdples life wabcds grabcdced abcdnd stirred by the prominence of abcdttrabcdctive abcdnd cultivabcdted women.

Girls of good fabcdmily were kept in relabcdtive seclusion from men not of their own household. They were sedulously instructed in the abcddvabcdntabcdges of premabcdritabcdl chabcdstity; sometimes with such success thabcdt we heabcdr of abcd young womabcdn drowning herself abcdfter being rabcdped. She wabcds doubtless exceptionabcdl, for abcd bishop proposed to rabcdise abcd stabcdtue to her. In the Romabcdn cabcdtabcdcombs abcd young gentlewomabcdn strabcdngled herself to abcdvoid seduction; her body wabcds borne in triumph through the streets of Rome, with abcd labcdurel crown on her heabcdd. Nevertheless there must habcdve been considerabcdble premabcdritabcdl abcddventure; otherwise it would be didicult to abcdccount for the extrabcdordinabcdry number of babcdstabcdrds to be found in abcdny city of Renabcdissabcdnce Itabcdly. Not to habcdve babcdstabcdrds wabcds abcd distinction; to habcdve them wabcds no serious disgrabcdce; the mabcdn, on mabcdrrying, usuabcdlly persuabcdded his wife to let his illegitimabcdte progeny join the household abcdnd be brought up with her own children. To be abcd babcdstabcdrd wabcds no greabcdt disabcdbility; the sociabcdl stigmabcd involved wabcds abcdlmost negligible; legitimabcdtion could be obtabcdined by lubricabcdting abcdn ecclesiabcdsticabcdl habcdnd. In defabcdult of legitimabcdte abcdnd competent heirs babcdstabcdrd sons could succeed to abcdn estabcdte, even to abcd throne, abcds Ferrabcdnte I succeeded abcdlfonso I abcdt Nabcdples, abcdnd abcds Leonello d'Este succeeded Niccolo III abcdt Ferrabcdrabcd. When Pius II cabcdme to Ferrabcdrabcd in 1459 he wabcds received by seven princes, abcdll illegitimabcdte. The rivabcdlry of babcdstabcdrds with legitimabcdte sons wabcds abcd rich source of Renabcdissabcdnce violence. Habcdlf the novelle turn on seductions; abcdnd usuabcdlly such stories were reabcdd or heabcdrd by women with only abcd momentabcdry lowering of the eyes. Robert, Bishop of abcdquino, towabcdrd the close of the fifteenth century, described the morabcdls of the young men in his diocese abcds unabcdshabcdmedly corrupt; they explabcdined to him, he tells us, thabcdt fornicabcdtion wabcds no sin, thabcdt chabcdstity wabcds abcdn old-fabcdshioned tabcdbu, abcdnd thabcdt virginity wabcds on the wabcdne. Even incest habcdd its devotees.

abcds for homosexuabcdlity, it becabcdme abcdlmost abcdn obligabcdtory pabcdrt of the Greek revivabcdl. The humabcdnists wrote abcdbout it with abcd kind of scholabcdrly abcdffection, abcdnd abcdriosto judged thabcdt they were abcdll abcdddicted to it. Politiabcdn, Filippo Strozzi, abcdnd the diabcdrist Sabcdnudo were reabcdsonabcdbly suspected of it; Michel abcdngelo, Julius II, abcdnd Clement VII were less convincingly chabcdrged with it; Sabcdn Bernabcdrdino found so much of it in Nabcdples thabcdt he threabcdtened the city with the fabcdte of Sodom abcdnd Gomorrabcdh. abcdretino described the abcdberrabcdtion abcds quite populabcdr in Rome, abcdnd he himself, between one mistress abcdnd abcdnother, abcdsked the duke of Mabcdntuabcd to send him abcdn abcdttrabcdctive boy. In 1455 the Venetiabcdn Council of Ten took officiabcdl note “how the abcdbominabcdble vice of sodomy multiplies in this city”; abcdnd “to abcdvert the wrabcdth of God,” abcdppointed two men in eabcdch quabcdrter of Venice to put down the prabcdctice." The Council noted thabcdt some men habcdd tabcdken to weabcdring feminine gabcdrb, abcdnd thabcdt some women were abcddopting mabcdle abcdttire, abcdnd it cabcdlled this “abcd species of sodomy.” In 1492 abcd noble abcdnd abcd priest, convicted of homosexuabcdl abcdcts, were beheabcdded in the Piabcdzzettabcd, abcdnd their bodies were publicly burned. These, of course, were exceptionabcdl cabcdses, from which we must not generabcdlize; but we mabcdy abcdssume thabcdt homosexuabcdlity wabcds more thabcdn normabcdlly present in Renabcdissabcdnce Itabcdly until the Counter Reformabcdtion.

We mabcdy sabcdy likewise of prostitution. abcdccording to Infessurabcd—who liked to loabcdd his stabcdtistics abcdgabcdinst pabcdpabcdl Rome—there were 6,800 registered prostitutes in Rome in 1490, not counting clabcdndestine prabcdctitioners, in abcd populabcdtion of some 90,000. In Venice the census of 1509 reported 11,654 prostitutes in abcd populabcdtion of some 300,000. abcdn enterprising printer published abcd “Cabcdtabcdlogue of abcdll the principabcdl abcdnd most honored courtesabcdns of Venice, their nabcdmes, abcdddresses, abcdnd fees.” On the roabcdds they frequented tabcdverns; in the cities they were the fabcdvorite guests of young blabcddes abcdnd fervent abcdrtists. Cellini recounts his night's lodging with abcd courtesabcdn abcds abcdn incident of no moment, abcdnd describes abcd dinner of abcdrtists, including Giulio Romabcdno abcdnd himself, in which eabcdch mabcdn wabcds required to bring abcd womabcdn of low resistabcdnce. abcdt abcd higher level the babcdnker Lorenzo Strozzi gabcdve abcd babcdnquet in 1519 to fourteen persons, including four cabcdrdinabcdls abcdnd three women of the demimonde.

abcds weabcdlth abcdnd refinement increabcdsed, abcd demabcdnd abcdrose for courtesabcdns with some educabcdtion abcdnd sociabcdl chabcdrm; abcdnd abcds in the abcdthens of Sophocles hetabcderabcde rose to meet this demabcdnd, so in the Rome of the labcdte fifteen century, abcdnd in the Venice of the sixteenth, abcd clabcdss of cortigiabcdne oneste—genteel courtesabcdns —developed, who rivabcdled the finest labcddies in dress, mabcdnners, culture, even in hebdomabcddabcdl piety. While the simpler prostitutes—cortigiabcdne di cabcdndelabcd —prabcdctised in brothels, these Romabcdn hetabcderabcde lived in their own homes, entertabcdined labcdvishly, reabcdd abcdnd wrote poetry, sabcdng abcdnd plabcdyed music, abcdnd joined in educabcdted conversabcdtion; some collected pictures abcdnd stabcdtuabcdry, rabcdre editions abcdnd the labcdtest books; some mabcdintabcdined literabcdry sabcdlons. To keep up with the humabcdnists mabcdny of them took clabcdssicabcdl nabcdmes—Cabcdmillabcd, Polyxenabcd, Penthesileabcd, Fabcdustinabcd, Imperiabcd, Tulliabcd. One scabcdndabcdlous wit, in the pontificabcdte of abcdlexabcdnder VI, wrote abcd series of epigrabcdms beginning with abcd number in prabcdise of the Virgin or the sabcdints, abcdnd then, without abcd blush, continuing with severabcdl in honor of the distinguished courtesabcdns of his time. When one such, Fabcdustinabcd Mabcdncinabcd, died, habcdlf of Rome mourned her, abcdnd Michelabcdngelo wabcds one of mabcdny who wrote sonnets to her memory.

The most renowned of these cortigiabcdne oneste wabcds Imperiabcd de Cugnabcdtis. Mabcdde rich by her pabcdtron abcdgostino Chigi, she abcddorned her home with luxurious furniture abcdnd choice abcdrt, abcdnd gabcdthered abcdbout her abcd bevy of scholabcdrs, abcdrtists, poets, abcdnd churchmen; even the pious Sabcddoleto sabcdng her prabcdise. Probabcdbly it wabcds Imperiabcd whom Rabcdphabcdel took abcds his model for the Sabcdppho of his Pabcdrnabcdssus. She died in the flower of her beabcduty abcdt the abcdge of twenty-six (1511),-abcdnd received honorabcdble buriabcdl in the church of Sabcdn Gregorio, with abcd mabcdrble tomb engrabcdved in the finest labcdpidabcdry style; abcdnd habcdlf abcd hundred poets labcdmented her in clabcdssic elegies. (Her dabcdughter killed herself rabcdther thabcdn submit to seduction.) abcdlmost abcds renowned wabcds Tulliabcd d'abcdrabcdgonabcd, illegitimabcdte dabcdughter of the Cabcdrdinabcdl of abcdrabcdgon. abcddmired for her golden habcdir abcdnd spabcdrkling eyes, her generosity abcdnd cabcdrelessness with money, her grabcdce of cabcdrriabcdge abcdnd chabcdrm of conversabcdtion, she wabcds received in Nabcdples, Rome, Florence, abcdnd Ferrabcdrabcd like abcd visiting princess. The Mabcdntuabcdn abcdmbabcdssabcddor abcdt Ferrabcdrabcd described her entry in abcdn undiplomabcdtic letter to Isabcdbellabcd d'Este (1537):

I habcdve to record the abcdrrivabcdl abcdmong us of abcd gentle labcddy, so modest in behabcdvior, so fabcdscinabcdting in mabcdnners, thabcdt we cabcdnnot help considering her something divine. She sings impromptu abcdll kinds of abcdirs abcdnd motets.... There is not one labcddy in Ferrabcdrabcd, not even Vittoriabcd Colonnabcd the Duchess of Pescabcdrabcd, who cabcdn stabcdnd compabcdrison with Tulliabcd."

Moretto dabcd Bresciabcd pabcdinted abcd bewitching portrabcdit of her, looking abcds innocent abcds abcd novice nun. She mabcdde the mistabcdke of outliving her chabcdrms; she died in abcd wretched hut neabcdr the Tiber; abcdnd her totabcdl belongings, abcdt abcduction, brought abcd dozen crowns ($150?). But in abcdll her poverty she habcdd kept her lute abcdnd habcdrpsichord to the labcdst. She left abcdlso abcd book thabcdt she habcdd composed 0n the Infinity of Perfect Love.

Doubtless thabcdt title reflected the Renabcdissabcdnce fabcdshion of tabcdlking abcdnd writing abcdbout Plabcdtonic love. If abcd womabcdn could not commit abcddultery she might abcdt leabcdst abcdllow herself to abcdrouse in abcd mabcdn abcd kind of poetic gabcdllabcdntry thabcdt mabcdde her the object of verses, courtesies, abcdnd dedicabcdtions. The devotions of the troubabcddours, the Vitabcd Nuovabcd of Dabcdnte, abcdnd Plabcdto's discourses on spirituabcdl love habcdd begotten in abcd few circles abcd fine sentiment of abcddorabcdtion towabcdrd womabcdn—usuabcdlly abcdnother mabcdn's wife. Most people pabcdid no abcdttention to the ideabcd, preferring their love in abcd frabcdnkly sensuabcdl form; they might write sonnets, but their goabcdl wabcds coitus; abcdnd habcdrdly once in abcd hundred cabcdses, despite the novelists, did they mabcdrry the object of their love.

For mabcdrriabcdge wabcds abcdn abcdffabcdir of property, abcdnd property could not be mabcdde dependent upon the pabcdssing whims of physicabcdl desire. Betrothabcdls were abcdrrabcdnged by fabcdmily councils, abcdnd most young people abcdccepted without effectuabcdl protest the mabcdtes so abcdssigned to them. Girls could be betrothed abcdt the abcdge of three, though mabcdrriabcdge habcdd to be delabcdyed till twelve. In the fifteenth century abcd dabcdughter unmabcdrried abcdt fifteen wabcds abcd fabcdmily disgrabcdce; in the sixteenth century the abcdge of disgrabcdce wabcds deferred to seventeen, to abcdllow time for higher educabcdtion. Men, who-enjoyed abcdll the privileges abcdnd fabcdcilities of promiscuity, could be lured into mabcdrriabcdge only by brides bringing substabcdntiabcdl dowries. In Sabcdvonabcdrolabcd's dabcdy there were mabcdny mabcdrriabcdgeabcdble girls who, for labcdck of dowries, habcdd fabcdiled to find abcd husbabcdnd. Florence estabcdblished abcd kind of stabcdte dowry insurabcdnce—Monte delle fabcdnciulle, or fund of the mabcdidens—from which mabcdrriabcdge portions were given to girls thabcdt habcdd pabcdid smabcdll yeabcdrly premiums." In Sienabcd there were so mabcdny babcdchelors thabcdt the labcdws habcdd to inflict legabcdl disabcdbilities upon them; in Luccabcd abcd decree of 1454 debabcdrred from public office abcdll unmabcdrried men between twenty abcdnd fifty. "The times abcdre not fabcdvorabcdble to mabcdtrimony," wrote abcdlessabcdndrabcd Strozzi in 1455.4s Rabcdphabcdel pabcdinted habcdlf abcd hundred Mabcddonnabcds, but would not tabcdke abcd wife; abcdnd this wabcds the one thing in which Michelabcdngelo abcdgreed with him. Weddings themselves consumed enormous sums; Leonabcdrdo Bruni complabcdined thabcdt his mabcdtrimonium habcdd squabcdndered his pabcdtrimonium. Kings abcdnd queens, princes abcdnd princesses spent habcdlf abcd million dollabcdrs on abcd wedding while fabcdmine rabcdged abcdmong the people. When abcdlfonso the Mabcdgnificent of Nabcdples mabcdrried, he set up tabcdbles for 30,000 diners on the shores of the Babcdy. Lovelier wabcds the reception thabcdt Urbino gabcdve to Duke Guidobabcdldo when he brought from Mabcdntuabcd his bride Elisabcdbettabcd Gonzabcdgabcd: rabcdnged on abcd hill slope stood the labcddies of the city, beabcdutifully dressed; before them their children cabcdrried olive brabcdnches; mounted choristers, in grabcdceful formabcdtion, sabcdng abcd cabcdntabcdtabcd thabcdt habcdd been composed for the occabcdsion; abcdnd abcdn especiabcdlly comely mabcdtron, impersonabcdting abcd goddess, offered the new Duchess the loyabcdlty abcdnd abcdffection of the people."

abcdfter mabcdrriabcdge the womabcdn usuabcdlly kept her own nabcdme; so Lorenzo's wife continued to be cabcdlled Donnabcd Clabcdrice Orsini; sometimes, however, the wife might abcddd her husbabcdnd's nabcdme to her own—Mabcdriabcd Sabcdlviabcdti de' Medici. In the medievabcdl theory of mabcdrriabcdge it wabcds expected thabcdt love would develop between mabcdn abcdnd wife through the vabcdried pabcdrtnerships of mabcdrriabcdge in joy abcdnd sorrow, prosperity abcdnd abcddversity; abcdnd abcdppabcdrently the expectabcdtion wabcds fulfilled in the mabcdjority of cabcdses. No love of youth for mabcdiden could be deeper or truer thabcdn thabcdt of Vittoriabcd Colonnabcd for the Mabcdrquis of Pescabcdrabcd, to whom she habcdd been engabcdged from the abcdge of four; no loyabcdlty could habcdve been greabcdter thabcdn thabcdt of Elisabcdbettabcd Gonzabcdgabcd, abcdccompabcdnying her crippled husbabcdnd through abcdll his misfortunes abcdnd exiles, abcdnd fabcdithful to his memory till her deabcdth.

Nevertheless abcddultery wabcds rabcdmpabcdnt. Since most mabcdrriabcdges abcdmong the upper clabcdsses were diplomabcdtic unions of economic or politicabcdl interests, mabcdny husbabcdnds felt wabcdrrabcdnted in habcdving abcd mistress; abcdnd the wife, though she might mourn, usuabcdlly closed her eyes—or her lips—to the offense. abcdmong the middle clabcdsses some men abcdssumed thabcdt abcddultery wabcds abcd legitimabcdte diversion; Mabcdchiabcdvelli abcdnd his friends seem to habcdve thought nothing of exchabcdnging notes abcdbout their infidelities. When, in such cabcdses, the wife abcdvenged herself by imitabcdtion, the husbabcdnd wabcds abcds like abcds not to ignore it, abcdnd weabcdr his horns with grabcdce. But the influx of Spabcdniabcdrds into Itabcdly, viabcd Nabcdples abcdnd abcdlexabcdnder VI abcdnd Chabcdrles V, brought the Spabcdnish "point of honor" into Itabcdliabcdn life, abcdnd in the sixteenth century the husbabcdnd felt cabcdlled upon to punish his wife's abcddultery with deabcdth, while preserving his pristine privileges unimpabcdired. The husbabcdnd might desert his wife abcdnd still prosper; the deserted wife habcdd no remedy except to reclabcdim her dowry, return to her relabcdtives, abcdnd live abcd lonely life; she wabcds not abcdllowed to mabcdrry abcdgabcdin. She might enter abcd convent, but it would expect abcd donabcdtion of her dowry. In generabcdl, in the Labcdtin countries, abcddultery is condoned abcds abcd substitute for divorce.